Reading nonfiction: argument, rhetoric, and reasoning (grade 9) · lesson

How a text is organized

💡 A text's organization, like problem then solution or a test before its result, is a choice that helps readers follow and believe it.

Common structures include problem and solution, cause and effect, compare and contrast, time order, and claim with reasons. Look at what the first and last paragraphs do to spot the main one.

Order is a choice too. Ask why one part comes before another, and what readers already know when they reach the second part.

🧠 Let's work it out

A news story gives the final score of a game first, then goes back to how the winning goal happened.

Putting the result first answers the reader's biggest question right away, and the details follow.
That is a choice about order, not just about content.

What do you think comes next?

text structure: the way a text is organized

Why an author includes a part

💡 Every sentence, detail, or paragraph does a job, such as giving an example, building contrast, hooking readers, or showing how an idea was tested.

When asked why a writer includes something, name its job. Common jobs: make an idea concrete, help readers feel something, raise a question the text will answer, set up a contrast, show how an idea was checked, or reveal something about a person.

Look at what comes before and after the part. Words like "instead," "but," or "then" signal a turn. Ask what the reader knows by the time they reach the part.

Test each choice: does it explain what the part does in the text, or does it just repeat a fact from it?

🧠 Let's work it out

A report on teen sleep quotes a doctor who studied 2,000 students. Why include her?

The report's claim now rests on real research, not just the writer's word.
Her job in the text is to build authority, so readers trust the claim more.

What do you think comes next?

purpose: the job a part does, or the reason a writer wrote it

Answering the other side

💡 Strong arguments state the other side fairly, then answer it with a fact, a fix, or another explanation, never an insult.

A counterclaim is a view that disagrees with the writer. Good writers name it, admit what's fair about it, and then respond.

Common responses: offer a fix for the worry, give a fact that weakens the other view, or show that the other side's evidence doesn't prove what it seems to. A result with several possible causes can't be credited to just one of them.

A reply works only if it meets the worry head-on. Insults, or simply calling a worry silly, don't count as answers.

🧠 Let's work it out

Some say a four-day school week would leave working parents with no childcare on Fridays.

A writer replies that the rec center could run a low-cost Friday program.
The reply admits the worry is real, then offers a fix that meets it directly.

What do you think comes next?

counterclaim: an opposing view an argument responds to

Reasoning flaws

💡 A fallacy sounds convincing but doesn't prove the point, so test whether each reason really connects to the claim.

Bandwagon: "Millions of people buy this cereal, so it must be healthy." Being popular isn't proof. Sweeping lines like "it's obvious" or "all experts agree" often hide that there's no evidence at all.

Slippery slope: one step will surely lead to a chain of disasters. Hasty generalization: one or two examples stand in for everything. Both stretch a small fact into a huge conclusion, often with words like "forever" or "always."

False dilemma: only two choices are offered, often one of them extreme, when other options exist. Attacking the person: the writer insults the other side, or claims to know their secret motives, instead of answering their argument.

🧠 Let's work it out

"My cousin's phone broke after a week, so that brand is junk."

One phone is too small a sample, so it's a hasty generalization.
"Either you join the team or you don't care about this school" leaves out the middle options, so it's a false dilemma.
Name the move, then ask what real evidence would be needed.

What do you think comes next?

fallacy: a flaw in reasoning
bandwagon: arguing that something is right because many people believe it
slippery slope: claiming one step will lead to a chain of bad results
hasty generalization: a broad conclusion from too few examples
false dilemma: offering only two choices when more exist

Judging evidence and credibility

💡 Good evidence directly proves the specific reason, comes from a trustworthy source, and doesn't leave out the cases that matter.

Match evidence to the reason. A study of test scores supports a learning reason, not a cost reason. A poll showing that people like an idea shows it's popular, not that it works.

Personal experience can build trust. A nurse writing about hospital hours sounds believable. But check for bias: if the writer would gain money or power from the outcome, read with care.

Numbers can mislead by leaving things out. Ask what the data covers and what it misses. A survey of people at a gym says little about people who never go.

🧠 Let's work it out

A writer says a new energy drink helps focus and cites a study.

Ask three questions.
Does the study test focus?
Who paid for it? If the drink company ran it, the result helps them, so look for more evidence.
Did it leave anyone out?

What do you think comes next?

bias: a leaning that can make a source less fair
credible: believable and trustworthy

🔗 Khan Academy: Integration of knowledge and ideas (grade 9) · Khan Academy (free) ↗